Chapter Eight The Liberal, Progressive Roots of Abdurrahman Wahid's Thought (1 Greg Barton Since assuming the chairmanship of Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) in December 1984 Abdurrahman Wahid's rhetoric has been marked by a decidedly liberal and progressive tone. He has made: much of the need for a positive and flexible attitude in responding to modernity, and has stressed that the plural, multi-communal nature of modern Indonesian society must be respected and defended against sectarian currents. In relation to sources of Islamic thought he has argued for a sophisticated synthesis of the best of modernist values and commitment to rationality and traditional scholarship and culture. He happily accepts the label 'progressive' being applied to his own thought, he says, because he is committed to ongoing adaptation in the social application of religious values in order to best meet evolving societal needs (though it should be remembered he remains 'conservative' in his core theological convictions). In the same way, he does not shy from the label 'liberal', arguing that the core values of Islam are 'liberal' values. Are such laudable convictions truly integral to Abdurrahman's thought? Or are they merely something that he has found convenient to invoke in his long running maverick performance as chairman of NU and high profile public intellectual? To answer this question it is necessary to consider something of Abdurrahman's personal history and to take a close look at his writing from the period before he took up leadership of NU. Biographical Background At 3.00 a.m. on the morning of 5 December 1994 the tension that had been mounting for days at the 29'" National Congress of Nahdlatul Ulama suddenly gave way to euphoria on the part of his many vocal supporters, particularly amongst the NU youth. Abdurrahman Wahid had won a closely contested election to become general chairman (ketua umum) of Nahdlatul Ulama for the third time. [For a detail discussion of this congress refer to chapter 9.] In the eyes of many people, the election victory was not just a victory for 'Gus Dur', as Abdurrahman is popularly known, over his opponents in NU, it was also a victory over elements in the government who resented Abdurrahman's outspoken defence of liberal values. The unlikely hero in the large batik shirt who, despite government restrictions, had been able to rally several hundred thousand supporters in the centre of Jakarta two years earlier, was the focus of national attention as he, once again, overcame extensive opposition. Government figures aside, there are few other intellectuals in Indonesia today with the public profile of 'Gus Dur'. Abdurrahman's present position in Indonesian society is very much the product of an unusual combination of personal qualities, as well as a number of circumstantial factors, not least of which is his family background. Abdurrahman Wahid was born in Jombang in 1940 into a family of impeccable NU lineage. His grandfathers, Kiai Hasjim Asj'ari and Kiai Bisri Syansuri, were two of the founders of NU. His father, Kiai Wahid Hasyim, was the son of Kiai Hasjim Asj'ari, and his mother, Solichah, was the daughter of Kiai Bisri Syansuri. From an early age his mother impressed upon him a sense of destiny and an awareness of responsibility regarding NU. On the threshold of his youth this sense of responsibility was heightened dramatically by the death of his father in an automobile accident in April 1953. Abdurrahman had just turned 13. The impact of his father's tragically young death was, no doubt, made all the greater by the fact that he was travelling together with his father in the car at the time of the accident and had the traumatic experience of watching his father die. At the time of his death Abdurrahman's father, aged thirty eight, was effectively leading NU.2 Up until April 1952 he had also been Minister for Religious Affairs. Abdurrahman's mother continued to play a vital informal role in the functioning of NU and consequently the family home in Jakarta, continued to be visited by NU leaders, other religious figures and politicians of various persuasions even after his father's death. Apart from being immersed in the world of NU kiai and politicians, Abdurrahman's parents saw to it that he was exposed to a wide range of social groups. When he was a young child he was periodically left in the care of a respected German friend of his father who happened to be a convert to Islam. It was at this time, he recounts, that he was first exposed to, and subsequently developed a life-long love of, classical European music. Later, from 1953 to 1957, when he was studying at Junior Economic High School (SMEP), he stayed at the home of the modernist leader Kiai Haji Junaid, a Muhammadiyah ulama and a member of the Muhammadiyah Majlis Tarjih (Religous Advisory Board). He then spent a number of years studying at some of the leading NU pesantren. From 1957 to 1959 he studied at Pesantren Tegalrejo at Magelang, completing his studies in less than half the usual time. From 1959 to 1963 he taught at Mu'allimat Bahrul Madrasah at Pesantren Tambak Beras, Jombang. During this period he also spent periods studying at Pesantren Krapyak in Yogyakarta, where he stayed in the home of prominent NU figure Kiai Haji Ali Ma'shum. In 1964 he left for Cairo, where he began attending classes at Ma'had 'Ali Dimsat al-Islamiyya within the famous Al-Azhar Islamic University. He found the intellectual atmosphere at Al- Azhar stultifying, however, with the main didactic technique being rote memorisation. This was not, he felt, any great advance on the sort of education to be found in a good pesantren in Java. Abdurrahman made good use of his time in Cairo, he Says, by not wasting too much of it on classes at Al-Azhar! Instead, he preferred to spend his time at one of the city's several well-equipped libraries, such as the American University Library. Whilst Abdurrahman was disappointed with Al-Azhar as an institution, he enjoyed the cosmopolitan life of the Egyptian capital, and he took advantage of the opportunity to join discussion groups and to generally exchange ideas with young Egyptian intellectuals, and with others who had come to study in Cairo. During this time in Cairo he also developed an enduring passion for French cinema and for soccer. From Cairo, Abdurrahman moved to Baghdad were he spent four years studying not islamic studies, as might have been expected, but Arabic literature and culture, and also European philosophy and social theory. He was much happier, he says, with the university system in I3aghdad, which in many ways was a far more European system than that of Al-Azhar. Abdurrahman was chairman of the Association of Indonesian Students in the Middle East from 1964 to 1970. In 1971 Abdurrahman visited Europe hoping to secure a university place, but found this difficult to do, as his studies in Cairo and Bagdad were not recognised in Europe. He also had thoughts of going to McGill University in Canada to study in its highly respected Islamic Studies program, but finally decided to return to Indonesia, in part because he had been inspired by news of exciting developments in the pesantren world. Later that year Abdurrahman returned to Indonesia and to pesantren life. From 1972 to 1974 he was a lecturer and Dean of the Faculty of Theology (Ushuludin) at the small Hasyim Asy'ari University in Jombang. Then, from 1974 to 1980, he was secretary-general of the Tebuireng pesantren in Jombang. During this period he steadily became more involved in the national leadership of NII, becoming first secretary (katib awal) of the NU Supreme Religious Council (Syuriah) in 1979, in Jakarta. Since moving to Jakarta in 1978, he had become head (pengasuh) of the Ciganjur pesantren, in South Jakarta. He was also involved in a number of other projects and activities in Jakarta including teaching in a monthly training program for Protestant clergy. From the mid-1970s he was in regular contact with other progressive Islamic intellectuals such as Nurcholish Madjid and Djohan Effendi and when he had moved to Jakarta he joined them in a series of academic forums and study cells. Abdurrahman fitted easily into these circles, even though his own formal educational background appeared, on the face of it, to be very different to that of his peers in Jakarta. In fact, he was intellectually very well equipped to participate in the prevailing discourse about western thought, Islamic learning and Muslim society. Although he had not had an opportunity for formal education in the west, he had read widely in western thought from an early age.3 Moreover, his studies in Baghdad had given him a good grounding in secular, western-style, liberal-arts education. At the same time as he became an active participant in Jakarta's Islamic study groups, and the general discussion about the development of Islamic thought, he also began to become involved in the broader intellectual life of the city. From 1982 to 1985, for example, he was head of the Jakarta Arts Council (Ketua Dewan Kesenian Jakarta), and in the process was twice elected as chairman of the Council of Judges of the National Film Festival (Ketua Dewan Juri Festival Film Nasional) an unusual appointment for a figure from the pesantren world, but typical of Abdurrahman. From 1980· to 1983 he was Nominator for the Agha Khan Award for islamic Architecture in Indonesia. Then from 1985 to 1990 he served on the Indonesian Council of Ulama (Majlis Ulama Indonesia). Since 1994 he has been an Adviser to the International Dialogue Foundation Project on Perspective Studies of Syari'ah (Islamic law) and Secular Law at The Hague. Abdurrahman's upbringing and education represents a rich amalgam of traditionalist Islamic learning and modern 'western' education. Given his background, the former element is to be expected; the latter is rather more unusual. To a certain extent the element of western education is something that his parents deliberately fostered. At the very least they saw to it that he was exposed to a wide range of people and influences. At another level, however, western learning is something that Abdurrahman deliberately sought out, even when he was studying in pesantren and in the Middle East. Clearly a different individual, in the same circumstances, could easily have avoided any exposure to western thought at all. Thus the fact that most of his 'western' learning was essentially informal (even in Bagdad Abdurrahman did not complete a formal degree program) does not diminish its significance. It is also clear, however, that Abdurrahman is thoroughly at home in the world of traditionalist Islam and NU and had no desire to leave it. Indeed it seems fair to say that he is passionate about traditionalist Islam; for this certainly is borne out by his writing, as we shall see shortly. Abdurrahman then, represents a coming together of two intellectual traditions: that of traditionalist Islamic scholarship and that of 'modern', 'western' learning. It would appear that one outcome of this synthesis is a strongly felt concern for the reform of Islamic thought and practice, a concern that shares much with Islamic modernism, at least in its earlier phases. An Examination of Abdurrahman Wahid's Writing from the 1970s Abdurrahman's literary output through the decade of the 1970s falls clearly into two distinct periods. The first period, from 1973 to the end of 1977, is one of a modest output of articles, mostly about pesantren life. During this period he wrote several articles a year, the major portion of which have been preserved amongst the 12 articles in Bunga Rampai Pesantren (A Pesantren Anthology), a book dealing wholly with pesantren issues.4 His move to Jakarta in late 1977 saw the beginning of a new phase of writing in which he became much more prolific. Muslim di Tengah Pergumulan (A Muslim in the Midst of a Struggle) contains seventeen articles on a wide variety of topics, written in a period of just over three years, beginning in January 1978.5 This latter period also witnessed the emergence of Abdurrahman as a public intellectual, a move that was marked not only by his appearance in the circles of Jakarta intellectuals but also by a regular flow of essays in the Jakarta press, in particular in the weekly current affairs magazine Tempo. It is significant that Abdurrahman begins the forewords to both of his books by discussing how difficult it is to isolate a unifying theme or an order to his writings. This is no doubt in large part simply an expression of fact: both books contain a wide range of articles written for diverse purposes and audiences. In part though it would appear that Abdurrahman's initial confession of difficulty in finding order in his collected works is a ploy to point the readers in the direction in which he himself sees his work leading. Thus, in the second paragraph of his foreword to Bunga Rampai Pesantren Abdurrahman proffers the following suggestion: ....at the very least, one can trace in these writings written over a period of many years, an overarching call: an invitation to those within the pesantren system to develop their pesantren, both individually and collectively. What is meant by development of pesantren here is the process wherein, whatever the approach taken, new ideas from the outside world are applied within the pesantren as required, whilst at the same time that which is positive and beneficial from the original character of the pesantren is maintained and built up, resulting in a fusion of the best of two worlds, that is, the world of old from which the pesantren sprang and the new world, the world to which it is now moving.6 Similarly, in the foreword to Muslim di Tengah Pergumulan, after an initial self-effacing confession of difficulty in isolating a grand theme, Abdurrahman does in fact go on to suggest a certain order and purpose: It is not at all surprising that the various pieces of writing in this anthology are difficult to bring together into any sort of whole. In fact even pieces dealing with the same issues, seen from the same point of view and taking the same approach, but written during very different periods, can evidence ideas that appear to be at odds with each other. Clearly, changing times and circumstances can very easily have us arrive at different ways of thinking about the same matters. Those who once were thought of as 'reformers' are now referred to as 'modernists'. That which was initially regarded as rigid conservatism is now seen to have its own dynamic of growth and development and is now referred to as being 'dynamic traditionalism'. It is clear that the relationship between a 'reform-minded' point of view and a 'rigidly conservative' point of view; between 'modernism' and 'traditionalism', has itself undergone qualitative change just as there has been a change in terminology. What was initially formulated in terms of a dichotomous relationship that reflected a profound disagreement of ideas, in time clearly called for reformation in terms of a complementary relationship involving mutual influence based upon dialectical exchange.7 In both books, the unifying theme which Abdurrahman is suggesting might be summed up as 'responding to modernity'. A particular focus in the earlier book is the appreciation and preservation of the best of the pesantren subculture, whilst the latter book is concerned more with illuminating the complexities of the issues involved in responding to the challenges of modernity. Nevertheless the articles in both anthologies have in common a commitment to intelligent growth and progress. Not surprisingly, the same is true of Abdurrahman's numerous magazine and newspaper articles from the late 1970s. If there is a distinctive characteristic of this third group of writings it is that in these short popular essays, Abdurrahman's fundamental humanitarianism, his concern for social harmony, tolerance and the rights and interests of others, comes strongly to the fore. This humanitarianism is grounded in his understanding of Islam. Throughout all his work from the 1970s, but in the later Tempo essays especially, it is clear that Abdurrahman believes that a true expression of Islam is only achieved when 'the spirit of the law', the hakikat (the inner truth) is made of first importance. Even if it comes at the expense of conventional interpretations of the 'letter of the law'. Moreover, Abdurrahman is convinced that the fundamental humanitarian concerns of Islam make it clear that Muslims should not fear the plural nature of modern society but rather that they should respond positively to it. Abdurrahman's pluralistic outlook permeates his writing, and is made evident in a multitude of subtle ways. His breadth of vision and openness of mind are seen in his broad reading and his willingness to be challenged in his thinking by writers from every background and conviction. Further evidence of Abdurrahman's pluralism, as well as his humanitarian convictions, are to be found in his passion for democratic reform, freedom of speech and liberal values in general. Undergirding this humanitarian thrust in Abdurrahman's thought are two other major elements: a profound commitment to 'rationality' and the conviction that through ongoing rational endeavour Islam is more than able to meet the challenges of modernity. Writing from the 1970s The approach taken in this study of Abdurrahman's writing is to, as much as is possible, jet him speak for himself. Consequently quotations are used liberally, and the writing is examined article by article in order to contextualise the line of commentary. We shall begin our examination of Abdurrahman's writing with an article that reflects his concerns about the future development of pesantren, and reflects his conviction that traditional Islamic scholarship and modern, western learning should be properly and intelligently integrated in pesantren education. 'Leadership in the Development of Pesantren' 'Kepemimpinan Dalam Pengembangan Pesantren' (Leadership in the Development of Pesantren) examines in depth the problematic nature of pesantren leadership.8 The first of several problems endemic to pesantren leadership that Abdurrahman focuses upon is that of the difficulty of responding to growth and change. Abdurrahman argues that the idiosyncratic style of leadership that is so effective in the early stages of establishing a pesantren, is often the source of difficulty in later stages of development. Very often, he suggests, the personal style of the kiai becomes a straight-jacket to his assistants and successors. The result is a certain listlessness in planning and a tendency to simply be guided by the 'natural course of events' and random external factors. This lack of planning and foresight, he continues, pervades matters as elemental as succession of leadership, with debilitating results as rival successors are left to assert their 'right' leadership in the wake of the former kiai's death. Another weakness, parochialism, also hinders the performance of pesantren leaders, especially in the modern period when many of them are required at some stage to exercise regional or national leadership: A pesantren leader who had gained greater influence as a result of expanding the region of origin of santri entering his pesantren is often unable to match this growth in personal influence with a corresponding growth in the quality of leadership sufficient to meet the difference between levels being faced. His mental horizon is very often local, or at the most regional, in nature. Rarely is such a person able to take in the national horizon when considering the development d pesantren, in such a way that he does not merely consider the pesantren which he himself is managing, or the I7csanr,en in the immediate vicinity.9 For these and other reasons, Abdurrahman continues, many pesantren leaders do not feel the necessity to plan for growth and change, and feel threatened by the current push to increase the amount of secular curriculum material into pesantren programs. Even where the introduction of a secular curriculum (alongside the traditional religious curriculum) has been encouraged, the results have not always been entirely satisfactory: It is this very challenge to race forwards and master non- religious knowledge which represents one of the tasks that pesantren must carry out. There have been a number of fundamental weaknesses in the efforts to develop non- religious elements in the pesantren curriculum up till now. The most fundamental weakness is found in the very nature of these efforts, which place great stress upon the intellectualist verbalisation of bombastic theoretical formulations but are unable to solve the practical issues that lie right before their eyes. The second fundamental weakness is the handling of curricula and their component parts in a piecemeal fashion, failing to employ a holistic, multi- discipline, approach (which is proven by, amongst other things, the separation of social-economic studies from social- cultural studies and the natural sciences). The third fundamental weakness is the continuing failure to achieve complete and well-rounded integration of religious and non- religious elements. Awareness of these fundamental weaknesses introduces the need for further developments relating to the pesantren itself, and not just the curriculum that it employs. The aim of these developments in the pesantren must be the integration of religious and non-religious knowledge, so that the graduates it produces will possess personalities that are complete and well rounded, containing within themselves strong elements of faith and a balanced mastery of knowledge. People with these qualities will have a broad mental horizon, a mature outlook on life, and will bring a multi-faceted character to solving the various problems that they might face. In other words, people who are able to look well ahead but at the same time have the sort of practical skills that enable them to solve their own problems in a thorough fashion. It is very clear that these sort of aspirations require a willingness to develop the pesantren, because with the system of education currently in place it is impracticable for the pesantren to achieve these goals. The failure firstly to understand, and then to fulfil, the needs set forth above means nothing less than that the pesantren becomes increasingly left behind in the cultural arena of our nation in the days to come. In other words, an increasing gap between pesantren life and the life of society outside the pesantren.10 Abdurrahman contends that if pesantren leaders do not seize the initiative to bring pesantren more into line with broader contemporary society then we shall shortly see the death of this institution: The pesantren will become a remnant from the past, possessing no rights whatsoever to influence the shaping 6 education nationally in the days to come. In the long run, this being left behind will mean the death-knell of the pesantren, because whatever happens it is clear that society in future will not be able to support and sustain a system of education which is completely cut free from the national education program. There are a number of reasons, apart from financial reasons, as to why society will not be able to ********* 1 I am very appreciative of the assistance of Greg Fealy in the preparation of this article. 2 In the period leading up to his death KH Wahid Hasjim was deputy chairman (ketua muda)KH Masjkur was chairman (ketua umum) of NU KH Masjkur's duties at the Department of Religious Affairs, and KH Wahid's superior qualities as a leader, however, meant that it was Wahid who effectively managed NU. 3 There remains at pesantren Tegalrejo an interesting reminder of his broad intellectual interests. In his former quarters there is cupboard containing his books, for the most part serious titles in English. Much of his time at Tegalrejo was spent reading westem philosophy and social theory. I am grateful to Greg Fealy for this information. 4 Abdurrahman Wahid, Bunga Rampai Pesantren: Kumpulan Karya Tulis Abdurrahman Wahid, CV Dharma Bhakti, (Jakarta, 1978). 5 Abdurrahman Wahid, Muslim di Tengah Pergumulan, Leppenas (Jakarta, 1981). 6 Wahid, Bunga Rampai Pesantren, p. 3. 7 Wahid, Muslim Di Tengah Pergumulan, p.3. 8 'Kepemimpinan Dalam Pengembangan Pesantren', in ibid., pp. 165-78. This paper was originally presented at the Latihan Pembinaan Pondok Pesantren Se-Indonesia, in Jakarta, from 25 September to 8 October 1978. 9 ibid., p.169 10 Ibid., pp. 171-2.